New Generation Travel Guide

On July 17, 1973, a military coup overturned the two-century-old Afghan kingdom and established a republic. From 1964 to 1973 the country had been
run as a true constitutional monarchy, with royalty barred from high public office. A prime minister appointed by the shah directed the
government. This constitution was abolished in 1973 after a military coup overthrew the shah and established the Republic of Afghanistan. The
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was set up in 1978, after which the Afghan Revolutionary Council ruled by decree. A new constitution was
approved in November 1987. The word Democratic was dropped from the republic's name. The remains of buried cities indicate that settled peoples lived in
Afghanistan more than 5,000 years ago. The land was invaded repeatedly bynomads and conquering armies. Historic figures who passed through
Afghanistan included Darius I of Persia, Alexander the Great, the Muslim invaders, Genghis Khan, Timur Lenk (Tamerlane), and Baber (Babur). Through
Afghanistan's mountain passes, China's trade flowed westward and southward on the ancient silk route. (See also Darius I; Alexander the Great;
Genghis Khan; Timur Lenk; Baber.)

The modern Afghan kingdom dates from 1747, when Ahmad Shah Durrani freed the country from Persian domination. To preserve their independence,
the Afghans shut off the outside world. In the 19th century Afghanistan was caught in the rivalries of great empires. Russia, to the north, threatened Britain's domination of India to
the east. Britain waged two bloody wars, from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880, to gain control over Afghanistan (see Afghan Wars). Defeated in
the first war but victorious in the second, Britain bought Afghanistan's cooperation by paying a large annual subsidy to `Abdor Rahman Khan and
supporting his rule.

 When Amanollah Khan ascended the Afghan throne in 1919, he declared war on Britain. The third Afghan War ended that year with no clear-cut winner,
but Afghanistan gained its independence. Amanollah turned to internal eform and tried to modernize the country. The mullahs--religious teachers
and leaders--incited a revolt against him, and he abdicated in 1929. Mohammad Zahir Shah became king in 1933.
The Westernization policy begun by Amanollah made significant advances.Under the 1964 constitution, women voted and ran for office for the first
time in 1965. The separation of the state's executive, legislative, and judicial powers was completed when a supreme court was established in
1967.

 In 1973 the country was taken over by a military regime, which was overthrown in 1978. A Revolutionary Council with leanings toward the
Soviet Union was then established. A treaty of friendship was signed with that country in December 1978. The new government oppressed the Islamic
majority, and civil war broke out. In December 1979, as the military regime weakened, the Soviet Union claimed Western interference, invaded
the country, and joined government forces against Muslim rebels. The council president was killed in the invasion, and the Soviets installed
Babrak Karmal in his place. Soviet advisers were sent into Afghanistan to aid the government. Opposition spread; demonstrations and violence
increased. In 1986 Karmal was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah. The Soviet Union, honoring a 1988 agreement to withdraw all of its troops, completed
its pullout on Feb. 15, 1989. More than 15,000 Soviet soldiers were killed during the nine-year occupation.

Three days after the Soviet troops pulled out, Najibullah declared a state of emergency and replaced the non-Communists in the cabinet with
Communists. A March 1990 coup attempt failed to bring down Najibullah. The Communist party was urged to surrender its constitutional monopoly on
power; in June of that year the Homeland party was created, though with essentially no political power. The United States and the Soviet Union
agreed in late 1991 to end military aid to the Kabul government and the rebels. In April 1992 the rebels closed in on Kabul, forcing Najibullah
out of power. Ethnic and political rivals vied for power.

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